OceanScience


 * Earth Structure, Plate tectonics, and Ocean Seafloor Features: **

98. What the different types of plate boundaries? What are the features associated with each boundary type?
 * 1) 1. **Divergent. Plates move apart. Can be between two ocean plates or two continental plates. Ocean-ocean divergent plates form through seafloor spreading which creates a ridge at the spreading center, the ocean basin expands and causes small volcanoes and earthquakes. An example is the mid-Atlantic ridge. Continental-continental divergent plates create a rift valley or new ocean floor. The continent spreads, the central rift collapses and the ocean basin fills. An example is the East African rift. **
 * 2) 2. **Convergent. Plates move together. Can be between two ocean plates, two continental plates or an ocean plate and a continental plate. When ocean plates are involved ocean crust is destroyed at the subduction zones. Between two ocean plates, the older, denser crust will subduct creating a deep trench in an arc shape causing volcanic island arcs and strong quakes. An example is the Aleutian Island chain. Between an ocean plate and a continental plate, the dense ocean plate plunges beneath the continent creating a trench. The melted magma creates volcanic chains accompanied by earthquakes. An example is western South America. When the convergence is between two continents, it involves the closure of an ocean basin. The collision between granitic lithosphere creates compression, folding and uplift. An example is the Himalayas. **
 * 3) 3. **Transform. Plates move past each other. Crust is neither created nor destroyed, but the movement of the plates past each other causes strong earthquakes. An example is the San Andreas Fault. Transform faults also occur along spreading ridges because the lithosphere is not a planar surface and therefore the axis of spreading is not a smoothly curving line. (Garrison, 89) **
 * PM **


 * Great! **
 * DS **

99. What are the properties of the Earth’s interior? Looks good- JH
 * Overall, pressure, temperature and density increase from surface to core.**
 * Outer crust - 5 to >40 km thick, oceanic crust is basaltic and more dense, continental crust is granitic and less dense**
 * Mantle - 2/3 of Earth's mass, mainly olivine, pyroxenes and Al minerals**
 * Outer core - Fe-Ni, liquid - due to extreme temperature**
 * Inner core - Fe-Ni, solid - extreme pressure more important than temperature**
 * DS**

100. What are the types and distribution of seafloor sediment? How is sediment transported to the sea?
 * 1. ** **Terrigenous- Source is erosion of land and volcanic eruptions. Ex: quartz, sand, clays. Distributed on continental margins, abyssal plains and polar ocean floors. About 45% of ocean floor covered with terrigenous sediment. **
 * 2. ** **<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Biogenous- Source is organic, accumulation of hard parts. Ex: calcareous and siliceous oozes. Distributed on deep ocean floors. About 55% of ocean floor is covered with biogenous sediment. **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">3. ** **<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Hydrogenous. Source is precipitation of dissolved mineral from water. Ex: Mn nodules, phosphorite deposits. Distributed with other sediments. About 1% of ocean covered with hydrogenous sediment. **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">4. ** **<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Cosmogenous- Source is dust and meteorite debris from space. Ex: Tektite spheres and glassy nodules. Distributed with other sediments. About 1% of ocean covered with cosmogenous sediment. **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Neritic refers to sediments on the continental shelf, which are mostly terrigenous. **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Pelagic refers to sediments on the slope, rise and deep ocean floor which are mostly biogenous. **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Turbidity currents are the most important means of transporting terrigenous sediment. The finest terrigenous sediments are transported by wind and water currents. (Garrison 135-142) **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">PM **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Looks good. **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">JL **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Good DS **

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">101. What are some of the characteristics of the continental margins, the abyssal plains, and the deep ocean basins?
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Continental margins have three main divisions: a shallow, nearly flat continental shelf close to shore; a more steeply sloped continental slope seaward; and an apron of sediment- the continental rise- that blends the continental margins into the deep-ocean basins. The shelf break marks the transition from shelf to slope. Submarine canyons cut into the shelf and slope. Continental margins can be divided into two types, passive and active: **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">1. ** **<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Active continental margins are near the edges of converging plates (Pacific type) and are narrow. **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">2. ** **<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Passive continental margins face the edges of diverging plates (Atlantic type) and are broad. **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Abyssal plains are flat, featureless expanses of sediment covered ocean floor found on the periphery of all oceans. Where sediment is not thick enough to cover the underlying basaltic floor, abyssal hills are present. **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">The deep ocean floor consists mainly of oceanic ridge systems and adjacent sediment covered plains. Deep basins may be rimmed by trenches or by masses of sediment. Flat expanses are interrupted by islands, hills, active and extinct volcanoes and active zones of seafloor spreading. **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">(Garrison 109-122) **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">PM **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Looks good **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">JL **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Would add the active margins have no continental rise, sediments drop into oceanic trench. **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">DS **

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">102. What are the differences between body and surface waves?

Two types of surface waves: R- (Rayleigh) waves - rolling/undulating motion in direction of wave motion; particles move in elliptical path L- (Love) waves - individual particles move back and forth perpendicular to wave direction Two types of body waves: P (primary) waves – compressional, rapidly pushing and pulling (back and forth); travel through Earth twice as fast as S waves; able to travel through solid rock and liquids S (secondary) waves – side to side, shear wave; slower waves, can travel through rock but not through liquid IB Thanks for the catch! I corrected my omission just as you posted. IB
 * Surface waves** – move along the surface of Earth, cannot travel through interior; cause the most damage
 * Body waves** – less destructive than surface waves; travel through Earth rather than on surface
 * I would add the surface waves are Rayleigh and Love**
 * MEW**

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">103. What is the evidence for plate tectonics?
 * Garrison. Oceanography pg 76 PB**
 * In 1968 Glomar Challenger drilled its first deep ocean crustal cores and provided the confirmation of plate tectonics. Through this, zoologists found new explanations for the unusual animals of Australia. Biologists discovered a new cause of the isolation required for the formation of new species by natural selection. Paleontologists found an explanation for similar fossils on different continents. Resource specialists could explain why coal deposits were buried in Antarctica.**
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Ocean Chemistry **

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">104. What are the properties of water? **<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">- Transparency – high for IR and UV; important for photosynthesis ** **<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">- Sound transmission – good, allows sonar; sounds heard at great distances **
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Water is the only substance to naturally occur in all 3 states on Earth. Many of the properties are due to polar nature of molecule and hydrogen bonding. **
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">- Universal solvent **
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">- Cohesion – molecules stick together **
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">- Adhesion – sticks to other materials **
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">- Surface tension – forms skin, highest of common liquids **
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">- Capillary action – tendency to spread through material **
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">- Conduction of heat – highest of common liquids **
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">- High specific heat/heat capacity **
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">- Latent heats of fusion/vaporization – highest of most common substances **
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">- Dielectic constant – highest **
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">- High boiling/melting points **
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">- Refractive index – increases with salinity; objects appear closer than in air **
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">DS **

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">105. What are the major chemical components of seawater?
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Water (hydrogen and oxygen)- 96.5% **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Most abundant ions (3.4%)- chlorine, sodium, sulfate, magnesium, calcium, potassium and bicarbonate **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">(Garrison 186) **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">-PM **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Looks good. **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">JL **

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">106. What are conservative and non-conservative elements?
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Conservative elements occur in constant proportions or change very slowly through time. They have long residence times, are the most abundant and compose the bulk of the ocean’s dissloved material. **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Nonconservative elements are tied to biological or seasonal cycles or to very short geologic cycles. They have short residence times. Ex: oxygen, carbon dioxide, silicon and calcium, nitrates, phosphates and aluminum **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">(Garrison 191-192) **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">PM **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Looks good **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">JL **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Examples of conservative elements: ions of Cl, Na, Mg, K **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">DS **

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">107. Be able to describe salinity, temperature, pH, density, light and sound and how they vary in seawater?
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Sound: decreases as it travels through seawater because of spreading/scattering/absorption (faster at the sfc) **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Light: has a higher refractive index= greater the bending of waves, increases with increasing salinity **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">pH: slightly alkaline; pH higher in warmer sfc water and lower (more acidic) at the ocean floor **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Temp: latent heat is lower b/c freezing pt is lower in seawater **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">density: increases with depth in seawater/ rapidly incresases with depth at the pynocline **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">MEW **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Good- JH **

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">108. How does salinity affect the following properties of water: specific heat, freezing point, rate of evaporation, osmotic properties?
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Coligative (solution) properties: **
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Specific heat – decreases with increasing salinity; takes less heat to raise T **
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Freezing point – lowers with increasing salinity; salts disrupt H-bond network; sea ice forms at ****<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">lower T **
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Rate of evaporation – decreases with increasing salinity; dissolved salts attract H20 molecules **
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Osmotic properties – osmotic pressure increases with increasing salinity **
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">(Garrison 186) **
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">DS **

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">109. What are the relationships among temperature, salinity and density of seawater?
 * The ocean is broken into three zones. The surface or mixed zone: the salinity, density and temperature are pretty well mixed due to wave action. The pynocline is where there is the greatest change. As depth increase there is a drastic increase in salinity and density and there is a drastic decrease in temperature. The top two zones account for 20% of the ocean water. In the bottom layer, the deep zone the salinity and density continue to increase slightly and the temperature decreases slighty. The deep zone accounts for 80% and is pretty restricted to down there. **


 * Also, the variation in the surface of mixed zone: the salinity is lowest at the equator and poles and highest at both tropics. The temperature is highest at the equator and decreases toward the poles.**
 * There are some helpful diagrams that show this on pg. 168 and 170 in //Oceanography an Invitation to Marine Science,// Tom Garrison.**


 * EEC**

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">110. Why ocean water is light blue?
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Blue light can travel through water far enough to be scattered back through the surface to our eyes. The wavelengths of other colors are absorbed (converted into heat) nearer to the surface. (Garrison 174) **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">PM **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Looks good **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">JL **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Good DS **

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">111. What is the CCD?
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">The calcium carbonate compensation depth. Calcium rich materials from the shells of foraminifera and coccolithophores give rise to calcareeous ooze. However, below about 4,500 feet the shells dissolve because seawater at depth contains more carbon dioxide, is more acidic and the solubility of calcium carbonate increases in cold water under pressure. At the CCD, the rate at which calcareous sediments are supplied equals the rate at which they dissolve and below this depth no calcareous oozes accumulate. “Marine snow.” **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">(Garrison 142-143) **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">PM **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Looks good **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">JL **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Good DS **


 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Looks good. Example of "marine snow" The White Cliffs of Dover. **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">EEC **

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">112. How is CO2 varied in the oceans?
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">CO2 levels in the ocean are generally low at shallow depths because plants use it for photosynthesis. As depth increases the O2 levels drop as a result of respiration by bacteria and marine animals, which tends to be favorable for an increase in CO2 levels. Overall as depth increases, CO2 levels increase. **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">(Garrison, 193) **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">EEC **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Ocean Circulation and Currents **

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">113. How is heat distributed on Earth?


 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Between 38N and 38S there is a surplus and greater than 38N and 38S there is a deficit. Heat transfers from high to low. **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">(Garrison, 205) **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">EEC **

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">114. What are the different wind systems and geostrophic currents?

Equatorial low || Low || Light, variable winds || Cloudiness, abundant precipitation in all seasons; breeding ground for Hurricanes. Relatively low sea Surface salinity due to rainfall. || Easterlies || N/A || NE in N Hemisphere SE in S Hemisphere || Wet summer, dry winter; pathway for tropical disturbances. || Subtropical high || High || Light variable winds || Little cloudiness, dry in all seasons. Relatively high sea surface due to evaporation. || NW in S Hemisphere || Wet winter, dry summer, pathway for subtropical high and low pressure. || ample precipitation in all seasons. || SE in S Hemisphere || Cold polar air with very low temperatures. || Hemisphere. Northerly in S Hemisphere || Cold dry air; sparse precipitation in all seasons || Geostrophic currents may be classified by their position within the geostrophic gyre as western boundary currents, eastern boundary currents, or transverse currents.
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">(Garrison, 210) **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">EEC **
 * Garrison. Oceanography pgs 213, 239-243 PB**
 * **Region** || **Name** || **Pressure** || **Surface Winds** || **Weather** ||
 * Equator (0º) || Doldrums (ITCZ
 * 0º-30ºN and S || Trade Winds
 * 30º N and S || Horse latitudes
 * 30º-60º N and S || Prevailing westerlies || N/A || SW in NHemisphere,
 * 60º N and S || Polar Front || Low || Variable || Stormy, cloudy weather zone;
 * 60º-90º N and S || Polar Easterlies || N/A || NE in N Hemisphere,
 * 90º N and S || Poles || High || Southerly in N
 * Western boundary currents** are the fastest and deepest geostrophic currents and are found at the western boundaries of ocean basins. The five large ones are the Gulf Stream (largest) (North Atlantic), the Japan or Kuroshio Current (North Pacific), the Brazil Current (South Atlantic), the Agulhas Current (Indian Ocean), and the East Australian Current (South Pacific). Eastern boundary currents are the opposite of their western boundary counterparts in nearly every aspect. They are found at the eastern edge of ocean basins (off the west coast of continents). They carry cold water equatorward, they are shallow and broad, their boundaries are not well defined and eddies usually don’t form. Their total flow is less than that of western boundary currents. The five **eastern boundary currents** are the Canary Current (North Atlantic), the Benguela Current (South Pacific), the California Current (North Pacific), the West Australian Current (Indian Ocean), Peru or Humboldt Current (South Pacific). The stress of winds on the ocean in the tropics and mid latitude westerlies give rise to **transverse currents**, that flow from east to west and west to east, linking the eastern and western boundary currents.

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">115. What is the Coriolis Effect?
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">In the Northern Hemisphere, moving objects veer off course clockwise, to the right; in the Southern Hemisphere moving objects veer off course counterclockwise, to the left. The observed deflection is caused by the observer’s moving frame of reference, the spinning Earth. The Coriolis effect is non-existent at the equator. **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Garrison 207-208. **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">PM **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Good DS **

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">116. What is Ekman transport?
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Ekman transport is the net motion of water down to about 100 meters. Theoretically this is 90 degrees to the right of the wind direction in the Northern Hemisphere and 90 degrees to the left of wind direction in the Southern Hemisphere. This results from the Ekman spiral. A body of water can be thought of as a set of layers. The top layer is driven forward by the wind, and each layer below is moved by friction. Each succeeding layer below moves with a slower speed and at an angle (due to Coriolis effect) to the layer immediately above it until water motion becomes negligible. the summed effect of the Ekman spiral accounts for Ekman transport. **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Garrison 236 **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">PM **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Good DS **

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">117. What is El Nino? A soutward-flowing nutrient-poor current of warm water off the coast of western South America, caused by a breakdown of trade-wind circulation.

Surface winds across most of the tropical Pacific normally move from east to west. Trade winds blow from a normally stable high-pressure area over eastern Pacific (near Central and South America) to a normally stable low-pressure area over the western Pacific (north of Australia). For reasons unclear, these pressure areas change places at irregular intervals of roughly three to eight years: high pressure builds in the western Pacific, and low pressure dominates the eastern Pacific. Winds across the tropical Pacific then reverse direction and blow from west to east – the trade winds weaken or reverse. This change in atmosphere pressure (and thus in wind direction) is called the **Southern Oscillation**. About fifteen of these attention-getting oscillations have occurred since 1950.

The trade winds normally drag huge quantities of water westward along the ocean’s surface on each side of the equator, but as the winds weaken, these equatorial currents crawl to a stop. Warm water that has accumulated at the western side of the Pacific – the warmest water in the world ocean – can then build to the east along the equator toward the coasts of Central and South America. The eastward-moving warm water usually arrives near the South American coast around Christmastime. The phenomena of the Southern Oscillation and El Nino are coupled, so the terms are often combined to form the acronym ENSO, for El Nino/Southern Oscillation. An ENSO event typically lasts about a year, but some have persisted for more than three years. The effects are felt not only in the Pacific; all ocean areas at trade wind (15° North and South) latitudes in both hemispheres can be affected.

El Nino is powerful enough to suppress the normally cold water current rich in upwelled nutrients, from flowing north and west away from the South American continent. When propelling trade winds falter, during an ENSO event, warm equatorial water that would normally flow westward in the equatorial Pacific back up to flow east. The Peruivan Current is interrupted or overridden by the warm water.

Diagram on 249 of Ocean Science Textbook.


 * (Garrison, 247 – 249)**
 * AB**

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">118. What is upwelling and downwelling and where do they occur?
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Upward movement of water is known as upwelling; the process brings deep, cold, usually nutrient laden water toward the surface. ** // **<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Equatorial ** // **<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">upwelling occurs along westward flowing equatorial surface currents. ** // **<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Coastal ** // **<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">upwelling occurs where winds blow parallel to shore or offshore, creating friction, which causes the water to move. The movement is affected by Coriolis and Ekman transport which moves it offshore. Coastal upwelling is responsible for great biological productivity. **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Downward movement is called downwelling. Water driven toward a coastline will be forced downward returning seaward along the continental shelf. Along the edge of Antarctica’s continental shelf, downwelling occurs as the result of the freezing of pure water, which leaves behind a dense, frigid brine. Sinking also occurs in the North Atlantic Ocean at the latitude of Iceland. **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Garrison 244-246, 254 **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">PM **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Good DS **

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">119. What are the major eastern boundary currents and western boundary currents? How do they differ? <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">120. What is thermohaline circulation? **<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Water circulation produced by differences in temperature and/or salinity (and therefore density). ** **<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Surface currents affect the uppermost layer of the world ocean (about 10% of its volume), but horizontal and vertical currents also exist below the pycnocline in the ocean’s deeper waters. Because density is largely a function of water temperature and salinity, the movement of water due to differences in density is called thermohaline circulation (therme, “heat”; halos, “salt”). The whole ocean is involved in slow thermohaline circulation, a process responsible for the large-scale vertical movement of ocean water and the circulation of the global ocean as a whole. ** **<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(Garrison 250 and 564) ** **<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">AB ** **<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Looks good -PM ** **<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Good DS **
 * Garrison. Oceanography pgs 213, 239-243 PB**
 * The five large western boundary currents are the Gulf Stream (largest) (North Atlantic), the Japan or Kuroshio Current (North Pacific), the Brazil Current (South Atlantic), the Agulhas Current (Indian Ocean), and the East Australian Current (South Pacific).The five eastern boundary currents are the Canary Current (North Atlantic), the Benguela Current (South Pacific), the California Current (North Pacific), the West Australian Current (Indian Ocean), Peru or Humboldt Current (South Pacific). //Sverdrup (sv) =1 million cubic meters per second(half the volume of the LA Superdome//**
 * //Western boundary currents// are warm, narrow, deep, transport substantial water (usu. 50 sv or more) to depths of 2km, swift moving hundreds of km per day. They have a sharp boundary with coastal circulation system; little or no coastal upwelling; waters tend to be depleted in nutrients, unproductive; waters derived from trade wind belts.**
 * //Eastern boundary currents// are cold, broad, slow, moving tens of km per day (10-15 sv). Diffuse boundaries separating from coastal currents; coastal upwelling common; waters derived from mid latitudes.**


 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Nature of Waves and Tides: **

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">121. What are the different types of waves?
 * Garrison. Oceanography pgs 267-268 PB**

molecules || Up to 1.72 cm (0.68 in.) || (tsunami) || Faulting of seafloor, volcanic eruption, landslide || Gravity || 200 km (125 mi) || of the Earth || Gravity || Half Earth’s circumference ||
 * Ocean waves are classified by the disturbing force that creates them, the extent to which the disturbing force continues to influence the waves once they are formed, the restoring force that tries to flatten them, and their wavelength.**
 * **Wave type** || **Disturbing Force** || **Restoring Force** || **Typical wavelength** ||
 * Capillary || Usually wind || Cohesion of water
 * Wind || Wind over ocean || Gravity || 60-150 m (200-500ft) ||
 * Seiche || Change in atmospheric pressure || Gravity || Large, variable, a function of ocean basin size ||
 * Seismic sea wave
 * Tide || Gravitational attraction, rotation

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">122. What are the characteristics of wave height and amplitude?
 * Garrison. Oceanography pg 272 PB**
 * [|http://zonalandeducation.com/mstm/physics/waves/partsOfAWave/waveParts.htm#amplitude]**

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">123. What are the different types of tides? <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">124. What is the amphidromic point?
 * The amplitude is the displacement of the medium from its normal position. Usually this simply means the maximum positive displacement. Often, especially in discussions about interference, amplitude means the displacement of the medium from its normal position at certain points, and this displacement can be positive or negative. The wavelength of a wave is the distance between any two adjacent corresponding locations on the wave train. This distance is usually measured in one of three ways: crest to next crest, trough to next trough, or from the start of a wave cycle to the next starting point. During their formation, moderate sized wind waves in the open ocean exhibit a maximum 1:7 ratio of wave height to length known as steepness. If a wave gets any higher than the 1:7 ratio of wave height to wavelength, it will break, and excess energy from the wind will be dissipated as turbulence.**
 * Garrison. Oceanography pgs 300-302,304-305 PB**
 * //High tides:// As Earth turns eastward, an island on the equator is seen to move in and out of these bulges through one rotation (one day). The bulges are the crests of the planet sized waves that cause high tides.**
 * //Low tides:// Low tides correspond to the troughs, the area between the bulges.**
 * //Lunar tides:// Tides caused by gravitational and inertial interaction of the moon and Earth.**
 * //Solar tides:// Caused by the gravitational and inertial interactions of the sun and Earth.**
 * //Spring tides//: At the new and full moons, the solar and lunar tides reinforce each other, making spring tides, the highest high and lowest low tides. Large tides caused by the linear alignment of the sun, Earth, and moon.**
 * //Neap tides:// At the first and third quarter moons, the sun, Earth, and moon form a right angle, creating neap tides, the lowest high and the highest low tides.**
 * //Astronomical tides:// Tides caused by inertia and the gravitational force of the sun and moon.**
 * //Meteorological tides:// Tides caused by storms.**
 * //Semidiurnal tides:// two high tides and two low tides of nearly equal level each lunar day.**
 * //Diurnal tides:// one high and one low tide**
 * Mixed (or semidiurnal mixed) tides: Successive high tides or low tides are of significantly different heights throughout the cycle. This pattern is caused by blending diurnal and semidiurnal tides.**


 * Figure 11.14** (page 306) discusses the development of of amphidromic circulation.

The node (or nodes) near the center of an ocean basin is called an **amphidromic point** (//amphi//; “around”; i; “running”). An amphidromic point is a no-tide point in the ocean, around which the tidal crest rotates through one tidal cycle. Because the shape and placement of landmasses around ocean basins, the tidal crests and troughs cancel each other at these points. The crests sweep around amphidromic points like wheel spokes from a rotating hub, radiating crests toward distant shores. Tide waves are influenced by the Coriolis effect because a large volume of water moves with the waves. They move counter clockwise around the amphidromic point in the Northern Hemisphere, and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. The height of the tides increases with distance from an amphidromic point.

About a dozen amphidromic points exist in the world ocean. **//Figure 11.15//** //(Page 307)// shows their location. Notice the complexity of the Pacific, which contains five. It’s //no wonder that the arrival of tide wave crests at the Pacific’s edges produces such a complex mixture of tide patterns, depending on shoreline location.//


 * //Garrision, 305 – 306.//**

Amphidromic Point - A “no-tide” point in an ocean caused by basin resonances, friction, and other factors around which tide crests rotate. About a dozen amphidromic points exist in the world ocean. Sometimes called a //node//. (**Node** – The line or point of no wave action in a standing pattern.)


 * Garrision, 547**

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">125. How do tides vary with location? What forces cause tides?
 * Garrison. Oceanography pgs 298-299, 306-307 PB**


 * Tidal patterns vary with ocean basin shape and size. Tides are influenced by the Coriolis effect because a large volume of water moves with the waves. The main cause of the tides is the combined gravitational force of the moon and sun acting on the ocean, inertia or centrifugal force. Tides in the Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia, are extreme because water in the bay naturally resonates (seiches) at the same frequency as the lunar tide.**


 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Coastal Environmental Processes **

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">126. What are the causes sea level changes? <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Eustatic Changes and Tectonic Changes <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">An important consideration in understanding coasts is long-term changes in sea level. Five factors can cause sea level change. Three of these factors are responsible for //**eustatic change**// – variations in sea level that can be measured all over the world ocean. Eustatic sea-level changes occur on an oceanic to worldwide scale: <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Of course, the continents rarely stay still as sea level rises and falls. Local changes are bound to occur, and two other factors produce variations in local sea level: <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Sea level has been at its current elevation (give or take 0.5 meter, or 1.5 feet) for only about 2,500 years. Over the past 2 million years, worldwide sea level has varied from about 6 meters (20 feet) above to about 125 meters (410 feet) below its present position. Changes in sea level produces major differences in the position and nature of coastlines, especially in areas where the edge of the continent slopes gradually or where the coast is rising or sinking.
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">The amount of water in the world ocean can vary. Sea level is lower during periods of global glaciations (ice ages) because there is less water in the ocean. It is higher during warm periods, when the glaciers are smaller. Periods of abundant volcanic outgassing can also add water to the ocean and raise sea level.
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">The volume of the ocean’s “container” may vary. High rates of seafloor spreading are associated with the expansion in volume of the oceanic ridges. This expansion displaces the ocean’s water, which climbs higher on the edges of the continents. Sediments shed by the continents during periods of rapid erosion can also decrease the volume of ocean basins and raise sea level.
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">The water itself may occupy more or less volume as its temperature varies. During times of global warming, seawater expands and occupies more volume, raising sea level.
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Tectonic motions and isostatic adjustment can change the height and shape of a coast. Coasts can experience uplift as lithospheric plates converge or can be weighted down by masses of ice during a period of widespread glaciation. The continents slowly rise when the ice melts.
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Wind and currents, seiches, storm surges, and El Nino or La Nina event, and other effects of water in motion can force water against the shore or draw it away.
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">(Garrison 316) **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">AB **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Great! -PM **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Very thorough! DS **

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">127. What is long shore current? <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">A current running parallel to shore in the surf zone, caused by the incomplete refraction of waves approaching the beach at an angle. <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Sediments are transported in the surf zone in a longshore current. The waves breaking at a slight angle distribute a portion of their energy away from their direction of approach. This energy propels a narrow current in which sediment already suspended by wave action can be transported downcoast. The speed of the longshore current can approach 4 kilometers (about 2½ miles) per hour. Longshore transport can create landforms such as various types of beaches, bars, spits, and barrier islands.
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">(Garrison 325) **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">AB **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Sand particles strike the beach at an angle but under the force of gravity return perpendicular to the shore- net movement downshore **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">-PM **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Good DS **

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">128. What are the different types of coastlines?
 * Garrison. Oceanography pgs 314-319 PB**

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">129. What are the features of a beach profile?
 * Coasts are classified as erosional and depositional. Erosional coasts are new coasts in which the dominant processes are those that remove coastal material. Depositional coasts are steady or growing because of their rate of sediment accumulation or the action of living organisms such as corals. Active coasts are near the leading edge of moving continental plates. Passive coasts are near trailing edges of continental plates. High energy coasts are areas frequently battered by large waves such as the coast of Maine. Low energy coasts are infrequently attacked by large waves due to their sheltered location such as the Gulf Coast.**
 * Garrison. Oceanography pgs 324-325 PB**

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">130. How do Barrier Islands move?
 * Most beaches have these key figures: The //berm(s),// an accumulation of sediment that runs parallel to shore and marks the normal limit of sand deposition by wave action. The peaked top of the highest berm, called the //berm crest,// is usually the highest point on a beach. It corresponds to the shoreward limit of wave action during the most recent high tides. Inland of the berm crest, extending to the farthest point where beach sand has been deposited is the //backshore.// The backshore is the relatively inactive portion of the beach, which may include windblown dunes and grasses. The //foreshore,// seaward of the berm crest, is the active zone of the beach, washed by waves during the daily rise and fall of the tides. It extends from the base of the berm – where a //beach scarp// (vertical wall of variable height) is often carved by wave action at high tide-to the low tide mark where the offshore zone begins. Below the low tide mark, wave action, turbulent backwash, and longshore currents excavate a //longshore trough// parallel to shore. Irregular //longshore bars// (submerged or exposed accumulations of sand) complete the seaward profile. This beach profile is only temporary, generated by the interplay of sediments, waves, and tides.**
 * Garrison. Oceanography pgs 328-329 PB**

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">131. What are the different types of estuaries?
 * Barrier islands can form when sediments accumulate on submerged rises parallel to the shoreline. Rising sea level and wave action cause the islands to migrate landward. The process is accelerated if sediment inflow is restricted.**
 * Garrison. Oceanography pgs 335-336 PB**


 * Estuaries are classified by their origins. The four types are drowned river mouths, fjords, bar-built, and tectonic.**
 * Estuaries formed at drowned river mouths are common especially along the U. S. Atlantic coastline. Rising sea level is mostly responsible for this. Examples are the mouths of the York, James, and Susquehanna rivers and Chesapeake Bay. Fjords aer steep glacially eroded us shaped troughs. Shallow sills result in little vertical mixing and stagnant waters. Deeper sills have slow mixing bottoms waters with adjacent oceans. They are most common in Norway, Greenland, New Zealand, Alaska, and western Canada. Bar built estuaries form when a barrier island or a barrier spit is built parallel to the coast above sea level. They are shallow with a narrow inlet connecting to an ocean. Waters are mostly wind mixed. Albemarle and Pamlico sounds in North Carolina and Chincoteague Bay in Maryland are examples. Estuaries formed by tectonic processes are coastal indentations formed by faulting and local subsidence. Fresh and sea water mix in the depression. San Francisco Bay is partly a tectonic estuary.**
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Primary Production, Marine Communities, and Animals **

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">132. What is primary production?
 * Garrison. Oceanography pgs 344, 348 PB**

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">133. What are the photosynthesis/respiration reactions?
 * Primary productivity involves the synthesis of organic materials from inorganic substances by photosynthesis or chemosynthesis. Primary productivity is expressed in grams of carbon bound into organic material per square meter of ocean surface area per year (gC/m²/yr). The immediate organic material produced is the carbohydrate glucose. Dissolved carbon dioxide provides carbon for the glucose.**
 * In photosynthesis energy from sunlight is used to bond six separate carbon atoms (derived from carbon dioxide) into a single energy-rich six-carbon molecule, glucose. Chlorophyll absrobs and briefly stores the light energy needed to drive the reactions. Water is broken down in the process and oxygen is released.**
 * 6CO2 + 6H2O --(light)--> C6H12O6 + 6O2**


 * Respiration is the metabolic process by which an organism obtains energy by reacting oxygen with glucose to give water, carbon dioxide and ATP (energy).**

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">134. What are some of the characteristics that cause high or low productivity at different latitudes? <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">135. What are the different benthic and photic zones?
 * C6H12O6 (aq) + 6 O2 (g) → 6 CO2 (g) + 6 H2O (l) + energy**
 * KMS**
 * Garrison. Oceanography pgs 356-358 http://public.wsu.edu/~dybdahl/lec10.html PB**
 * Marine life depends upon physical and environmental factors. Too much or too little of a single factor (limiting factor) can inhibit an organism’s function. The angle of the sunlight reflecting off of the water, such as if it is at a low angle such as the polar regions, determines how much penetrates the surface. More direct sunlight, such as towards and at the equator, penetrates to a greater depth which affects the rate of photosynthesis. Light levels are highest near coastlines. Nutrients vary at different latitudes. Ocean temperature varies with depth and latitude. Salinity of the seawater varies with seasons, depth and latitudes. Upwelling zones bring nutrient rich deep water to the surface, fueling primary productivity. Examples would be coastal upwelling, equatorial upwelling, and island mass effects. Absence of any one factor, even with everything else in place, will prevent the organism from thriving.**
 * Garrison. Oceanography pgs 364-365 PB**

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">136. What are the main primary producers and their consumers in seawater? How are they distributed?
 * Benthic (Bottom) || Pelagic (Open Water) ||
 * Supralittoral (Supertidal) || Neritic (Near Shore over continental shelf) ||
 * Littoral (Intertidal) || Oceanic - by light (beyond continental shelf) ||
 * Sublittoral (Subtidal || Euphotic (Photic) ||
 * Inner (ocean bottom near shore) || Disphotic (Photic) ||
 * Outer (ocean floor to edge of continental shelf) || Aphotic (no light) ||
 * Bathyl (seabed on slopes down to great depths) || Oceanic – by depth ||
 * Abyssal || Epipelagic (lighted photic zone) ||
 * Hadal (Deepest) || Mesopelagic ||
 * || Bathypelagic ||
 * || Abyssopelagic (deep trenches) ||
 * Garrison. Oceanography pgs 380-393 PB**

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">137. What are the various marine communities?
 * The primary producers, autotrophic plankton that generally produce glucose by photosynthesis, are called phytoplankton. They drift within the euphotic zone. Phytoplankton are critical to marine life and to all life on Earth because of their great contribution to food webs and their generation of large amounts of atmospheric oxygen through photosynthesis. There are at least 8 major types of phytoplankton of which the most prominent are the diatoms and the dinoflagellates. A type of phytoplankton is the picoplankton of which there is about 100 million in every liter of seawater at all depths and latitudes. Picoplankton may account for up to 80% of the photosynthetic activity in particularly the tropical waters. Zooplankton consume primary producers. These are heterotrophic plankton that graze on larger cyanobacteria, diatoms, Dinoflagellates, and other phytoplankton at the bottom of the trophic pyramid. The mass of the zooplankton is about 10% that of the phytoplankton.**
 * Garrison. Oceanography pgs 394 [] PB**

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">138. What are the major classes of marine animals?
 * Estuaries, shores, ocean zones, plankton, nekton, squid and octopus, bony fish, sharks and rays, dolphins porpoises and whales, benthos.**
 * Plankton, algae, marine plants, mangrove communities**
 * Garrison. Oceanography pgs 406 PB**


 * Vertebrates and invertebrates. Types of vertebrates Porifera: sponges, Cnidaria: coral, jellies, Mollusca; snails, squid, arthropoda; crabs, shrimp. Types of invertebrates are Chordata; fishes, reptiles, birds, mammals.**


 * This is incorrect. It should be reversed (types of INvertebrates Porfera: sponges, etc) and (types of VERTEBRATES are Chordata, etc) **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Mark W **


 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Natural Resources and Ecology of the Marine Environment: **

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">139. What are the different types and sources of marine pollution? <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">140. What is eutrophication?
 * Garrison. Oceanography pgs 492 PB**
 * Marine pollution may be natural or human generated. Sources of marine pollution are runoff and discharges from land (44%), airborne emissions from land (33%), shipping and accidental spills (12%), ocean dumping (10%), and offshore mining, oil, and gas drilling (1%).**
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Excessive nutrients released into the water that cause physical, chemical, and biological changes to the water. Excess fertilizers, effluent from plants such as wastewater treatment facilities, and the like cause eutrophication. It stimulates growth of some species, such as algae, to the detriment of others. Algal blooms can cause huge fish kills due to the algae choking the gills of some species. It can also cause “dead zones”, or zones of little or no oxygen. (Oceanography, page 499) **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">IB **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Looks good -PM **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Good DS **

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">141. What is hypoxia?
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">A result of eutrophication, it is a condition of low or no free oxygen in water. Usually associated with surface waters, it is now being found in some deep ocean layers as a result of ocean temperature increases due to global warming. It is now thought to be responsible for more fish deaths than any other factor, and a serious threat to shellfisheries. **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">IB **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Looks good -PM **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Good DS **

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">142. What are the non-extractable and extractable marine resources and where are they found?
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Non-Extractable: This would be things like the use of the ocean for recreation/transportation/disposal. **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Extractable: Renewable/non-renewable resources suchs as wave/wind energy, freshwater thru desalination of the seawater, marine sand/gravel/salts/minerals/Methan Hydrate deposits **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">MEW **

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">143. What are the non-renewable and renewable resources found in the world’s oceans?
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Renewable: naturally replaced by growth of marine organisma or natural physical processes **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Non-Renewable: oil/gas, solid mineral deposits--cannot be replenished over short time spans **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">oil/nat gas: found mostly in continental margins **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">mineral deposits: cont shelf/sea floor **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">MEW **

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">144. What is the EEZ?
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">The exclusive economic zone. It is 200NM from a nation's shoreline. In this zone, nation's hold sovreignty over resoureces. Set by the U.N. **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Outside this zone is considered high seas and the resources are shared by citizens of the world. The International Seabed Authority has juridisction over disputes on the high seas. **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">MEW **